“Functionalism” in Communication: the Origin and Evolution of a Historical Concept

ZHAN Ning, ZHOU Chenjing

Chinese Journal of Journalism & Communication ›› 2022, Vol. 44 ›› Issue (5) : 24-48.

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Chinese Journal of Journalism & Communication ›› 2022, Vol. 44 ›› Issue (5) : 24-48.
Specific Topic/Intellectual History of Journalism and Communication

“Functionalism” in Communication: the Origin and Evolution of a Historical Concept

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Abstract

Functionalism, as a key concept throughout the history of the communication research, not only lacks a unified and clear definition, but also implies ambiguous and imprecise interpretation in Communication. Tracing functionalism in the context of social theory and communication research, this paper first reviews how Harold Lasswell and Robert Merton clarified functionalism in response to the transition of the American social sciences in the 1940s. Then this paper explores how their functionalist approaches are revised and how communication research is labeled by “functionalism” by Charles Wright and Elihu Katz. Under the rigid label of “functionalism,” use and gratification research resonates with media effect research, although it was once regarded as the hope of settling the restriction of the short-term effect research. After the 1960s, the traditional functionalist paradigm stressing systematic equilibrium has been gradually reconstructed with the change of the society. Communication research absorbing the functionalist trend containing more theoretical approaches keeps developing on the basis of disrupting tradition.

Key words

functionalism / communication research / use and satisfaction research / media effect research / social theory

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ZHAN Ning , ZHOU Chenjing. “Functionalism” in Communication: the Origin and Evolution of a Historical Concept[J]. Chinese Journal of Journalism & Communication. 2022, 44(5): 24-48

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Footnotes

1. 埃米尔·涂尔干(Émile Durkheim)受孔德(Auguste Comte)与斯宾塞(Herbert Spencer)社会有机体思想的影响,将社会看作是其中各个部分发挥作用的有机体,“第一位系统化形成了社会学中的功能主义路径”(Coser & Rosenberg,1969:610),最先将功能主义作为一个分析概念使用(Burrowes,1993:4),并将社会学界定为“制度(institutions)及其产生与功能的科学”(Durkheim,1895/1982:45)。

2. 传播学界也偶有对功能主义的辩护与修补,如Rothenbuhler(1987)。

3. 在社会学与人类学功能主义的代表人物中,涂尔干将“功能”界定为“运动(或制度)与有机体的某种需要之间相应的关系”,需要“协同其他功能共同维持普遍生活”(涂尔干,1893/2000:13,314;Radcliffe-Brown,1935:394);阿尔弗雷德·拉德克里夫—布朗(Alfred Radcliff-Brown)将“功能”界定为“部分活动对它所属的整体行为的贡献”,“即它在作为整体的社会生活中所起的作用,及它对维系结构延续性的贡献”(Radcliff-Brown, 1935:396-397;1968:180);布朗尼斯劳·马林诺夫斯基(Bronisław Malinowski)将“功能”界定为“通过人类合作、使用人工制品和消费商品等活动来满足的需求”,其中“仪式与整个信仰系统相关联,共同由与永生上帝合而为一的文化需要所决定”(Malinowski,1960:159,37);塔尔科特·帕森斯(Talcott Parsons)将“功能”理解为“使系统状态适应环境变化”的“机制”(Parsons,2017:68);默顿将“功能”界定为“观察到的那些有助于一定系统之调适的结果”,“事项”对“不同地位的个人、亚群体、较大的社会系统和文化系统”的后果(Merton,1968:105-106)。

4. “功能主义”在中国新闻传播学语境中的模糊涵义也被注意到,如黄旦(2008:23)。

5. 罗伯特·林德被称作哥伦比亚大学应用社会研究所除保罗·拉扎斯菲尔德(Paul Lazarsfeld)和默顿外“三驾马车”中“隐藏的人物”(Coleman,1990:77),在拉氏从奥地利移民到美国并在学界立足的过程中出力甚多(莫里森,1998/2004:111)。然而在拉氏入主哥大社会学之后几年,两人关系逐渐淡化。除了个人私交上的原因,功能主义路径的演化也构成了两人学术取向上的主要分歧。

6. 洛克菲勒讲习班成立的战时背景可参考Gary (19961999:85-129),罗杰斯(1994/2005:192-196),莫里森(1998/2004:133-137)。

7. 拉斯韦尔五W模式的更详细梳理可参考高海波(2010),Sapienza,Iyer & Veenstra (2015)。

8. 这一说法迅速风靡,也是因为它是同时期传播学者的共识,如拉扎斯菲尔德在1938年给洛克菲勒基金会阐述广播研究任务的文件中就使用了“谁听什么,为什么,产生什么效果”的相似术语(Buxton,2003:309)。

9. 类似的“功能”与“目的”的混同也发生在社会理论层面,详见Munch (1976:203-208)。

10. 战时传播研究主要包括直接服务于军事行动的个体心理学研究、战时动员研究和以意识形态说服为核心的宣传研究,后来又延续到了战后美国主导的国际传播研究。详见Gary (1996)、Glander (2000)。

11. 默顿对失范过程的解释详见Merton (1968:188-189)。默顿将失范从涂尔干原意的“集体意识的匮乏状态”引向“结构紧张在社会行动上的表现”(渠敬东,1999:31)。

12. 详见Merton (1964)。默顿曾说:“涂尔干的知识社会学受其对社会心理学的忽视所害”(Merton,1955:508)。

13. 在提到本书经验研究对理论的修订作用时,默顿说:“当通常应用于某个论题的现有概念图式不能充分说明这些事实时,研究就不断推动其重新修订”(Merton,1968:162),即“中层理论”的形成过程。

14. “默顿几乎是拉扎斯菲尔德所有成果的匿名合作者”(Sills,1987:271)。两人不但在1940年代同时将研究重心转向大众传播效果研究(Simonson,2005:281),也有着很好的私交(罗杰斯,1994/2005:216)。两人共合作完成了四篇论文(Lazarsfeld & Merton,1948/2004;Lazarsfeld & Merton,1950/1972;Lazarsfeld & Merton,1954/1982;Merton,1943/1968:564-585),合编了一本论文集(Merton & Lazarsfeld,1950)。除1948年文章外,其余作品也涉及媒介的社会功能论述,如1943年文章对“回旋镖效应”的论述。

15. 涂尔干的“集体意识”观念不但得到了帕森斯的重视(帕森斯,1937/2003:371,375-376),也深刻影响了默顿对于社会规范过程的认识,这体现在“伪礼俗”概念(Merton,1946/2004:142)上。

16. 赖特对于大众传播的定义也呼应了“失范”理论,详见Wright (1959/2004)。

17. 有关早期使用研究的总结详见展宁(2020)。

18. 对帕森斯功能主义的批评参见Rothenbuhler (1987:69)。

Funding

Humanities and Social Sciences Project of Shandong Province(21DXWJ05)
Fundamental Research Funds of Shandong University(2020GN070)
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